Pest Control
What are some of the best forms of pest control? If at all possible it is always in your best interest to hire a professional. If this is not an option for you, there is always ways to treat your home or business yourself. It is a good idea to weigh the pros and cons of using a professional pest control service, as opposed to treating your insect, or rodent problem yourself.
It is important to know what chemicals, or pesticides you are using for your pest control situation. The reason it is so important to know what you are dealing with, is because of the affects it can have on surrounding life, including pets, children, and you. Some things you would think would be common sense, are not always the case. Many people have killed pets, or made themselves sick by not taking the proper care and action to make sure they follow the directions provided for each pesticide.
Regional stores like Lowe’s and Home Depot carry a large selection of pest control items. Some of them are in a granule form while others are in a spray or liquid form. You can usually save money by buying a pesticide that is in a concentrated form that you add water to. Another great place that you can find pesticides and bug repellent is at a feed store. Many feet stores carry a large selection of a refill and his and pesticides that are safe to use indoors and outdoors. Many of these feet stores are animal friendly so they carry all natural pesticides, that concentrate on using oils from plants and trees to retell or kill insects.
Insects are everywhere, and they affect just about everyone in some way or another. Throughout this site we will try to touch on the basics of treating most different kinds of insects. We will also touch upon the basic makeup and requirements that a particular insect needs to live in a particular area. Using pesticides and chemicals is not the only solution for pest control by any means. As important as it is for you to get rid of a particular past, remember it is always a good idea to try and remain as environmentally friendly as possible while achieving the task you’re trying to achieve.
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Mosquito Control
Mosquitos are a pest that annoy just about everyone and everything. Mosquito control is on most peoples minds during the rainy season. There are many mosquito repellants and sprays on the market today that will for the most part keep mosquitos under control. There are also mosquito foggers that will keep your yard bug free for hours, but most of these methods are usually temparary at best. So what are some good methods of mosquito control? Before we discuss mosquito control, lets talk a little bit about mosquitos and their make up.
Mosquitoes are principally nectar feeders with only the females requiring a meal of blood, except for the Toxorhynchites, which never drinks blood.[9] This family includes the largest of the extant mosquitoes (colloquially referred to as “mosquito eaters” and “mosquito hawks”), the larvae of which are predatory on the larvae of other mosquitoes. These mosquito eaters have been used in the past as mosquito control agents with variable success.[10]
In the English language, the word Mosquito (Span., little fly) dates back to 1572. [11]The word was adopted to replace the term “biting flies” to prevent confusion with the house fly. It is derived from the word fly (Latin musca, cf. Skt maksh) and is related to the Italian moschetta and the French moustique.
The female mosquito (in almost all species) sucks the blood of mammals, including humans. Mosquito bites often swell up hours after happening, causing a red ringed white bump about a centimeter in diameter. This bump can itch for days and over-scratching the bite can cause it to bleed. Continued over-scratching can cause scars. Mosquito bites can transmit diseases, such as Malaria, Dengue and West Nile Virus, so authorities in many areas take measures to reduce mosquito populations through pesticides or more organic means. An easy way to reduce mosquito populations in a residential area is the removal of standing water (where mosquitoes breed), and the use of repellents, such as DEET.
Biology
Life cycle and feeding habits
Culex mosquito larvae
Culex mosquito larvae
In most female mosquitoes, the mouth parts form a long proboscis for piercing the skin of mammals (or in some cases birds or even reptiles and amphibians) to suck their blood. As opposed to a syringe’s typically smooth needle, the mosquito proboscis is highly serrated, which leaves a minimal number of points of contact with the skin being pierced — this reduces nerve stimulation to the point where the “bite” is not felt at all, which is generally the case (see the Mosquitoes and health section below for an explanation on the swelling). The females require protein for egg development and laying, and since the normal mosquito diet consists of nectar and fruit juice, which has no protein, most must drink blood. Males differ from females, with mouth parts not suitable for blood-sucking.
The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis, going through four distinct stages in its life cycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult — a process that was first described by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. The length of the first three stages is dependent on the species and temperature. Culex tarsalis may complete its life cycle in 14 days at 20 °C (68 °F) and only ten days at 25 °C (77 °F). Some species have a life cycle of as little as four days, whereas in other species some adult females can live through the winter, laying their eggs in the spring. Many species of mosquito live their adult stage in roughly two weeks to two months. The larvae are the “wrigglers” or “tumblers” found in puddles or water-filled containers. These breathe air through a siphon at the tail end. The pupae are nearly as active as the larvae, but breathe through thoracic “horns” attached to the thoracic spiracles. Most larvae feed on microorganisms, but a few are predatory on other mosquito larvae. Some mosquito larvae, such as those of Wyeomyia live in unusual situations. These mosquito wigglers live either in the water collected in epiphytic bromeliads or inside water stored in carnivorous pitcher plants. Larvae of the genus Deinocerites live in crab holes along the edge of the ocean.
Most mosquito species outside of the tropics overwinter as eggs, but a significant minority overwinter as larvae or adults. Mosquitoes of the genus Culex (a vector for St. Louis encephalitis) overwinter as mated adult females.
The females of blood sucking species locate their victims primarily through scent. They are extremely sensitive to the carbon dioxide in exhaled breath and exuded through the pores, as well as several substances found in sweat. Some people seem to attract mosquitoes more than others. Empirical studies of mosquito bites suggest that the risk of being bitten follows an approximately negative binomial distribution. Being male, being overweight, and having type ‘O’ blood may increase the risk of being bitten. Mosquitoes can detect heat, so they can find warm-blooded mammals and birds very easily once they get close enough.
Mosquitoes and humans
Mosquitoes and health
Endemic range of yellow fever in Africa (2005)
Endemic range of yellow fever in Africa (2005)
In much of the world, mosquitoes are a major public health problem; they are estimated to transmit disease to more than 69 million people annually. In the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the UK, Scandinavia, and other temperate countries, mosquito bites are mostly just a nuisance.[12]. Global warming is likely to increase or change the range of mosquitos in these countries, resulting in increased frequency of Dengue fever, Ross River Fever, Malaria and other mosquito borne diseases.[1]
The mosquito genus Anopheles carries the malaria parasite (see Plasmodium). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with around 5.3 million deaths annually, according to Center for Disease Control. Most species of mosquito can carry the filariasis worm, a parasite that causes a disfiguring condition (often referred to as elephantiasis) characterized by a great swelling of several parts of the body; worldwide, around 40 million people are living with a filariasis disability. Most species of mosquito can carry the viral diseases yellow fever, dengue fever, epidemic polyarthritis, Rift Valley fever, Ross River Fever, and West Nile virus. Fortunately, mosquitoes do not transmit HIV. Viruses carried by arthropods such as mosquitoes or ticks are known collectively as arboviruses. West Nile virus was accidentally introduced into the United States in 1999 and by 2003 had spread to almost every state.
A mosquito’s period of feeding is often undetected; the bite only becomes apparent because of the immune reaction it provokes. When a mosquito bites a human, she injects saliva and anti-coagulants. For any given individual, with the initial bite there is no reaction but with subsequent bites the body’s immune system develops antibodies and a bite becomes inflamed and itchy within 24 hours. This is the usual reaction in young children. With more bites, the sensitivity of the human immune system increases, and an itchy red hive appears in minutes where the immune response has broken capillary blood vessels and fluid has collected under the skin. This type of reaction is common in older children and adults. Some adults can become desensitized to mosquitoes and have little or no reaction to their bites, while others can become hyper-sensitive with bites causing blistering, bruising, and large inflammatory reactions.
Mosquitoes in flight emit a distinctive high-pitched buzz, which can interrupt sleep.
Mosquito control and integrated mosquito management
Dragonflies are natural predators of mosquitoes.
Dragonflies are natural predators of mosquitoes.
Main article: Mosquito control
There are two kinds of mosquito control: large, organized programs to reduce mosquito populations over a wide area, and actions individuals can take to control mosquitoes with respect to themselves and their own property.
Organized mosquito control programs today draw on the principles of integrated pest management. An integrated mosquito control program typically includes the following measures, all guided by surveillance of mosquito populations and knowledge of the mosquito life cycle:[13]
* source reduction - the removal of mosquito breeding habitats
* habitat modification - manipulating habitats to reduce breeding
* biocontrol - introducing natural predators of mosquitoes
* larvicide - using pesticides to reduce larval populations
* adulticide - using pesticides to reduce adult populations
The most effective solutions for malaria control efforts in the third world are: mosquito nets (klamboe), mosquito nets treated with insecticide (often permethrin), and DDT. [2] Nets are treated with insecticide because mosquitoes can sometimes get past an imperfect net. Insecticide-treated nets (ITN) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets in preventing mosquito bites.[14] Untreated mosquito nets are less expensive, and they are effective in protecting humans when the nets do not have any holes and are tightly sealed around the edges. Insecticide free nets do not adversely affect the health of natural predators such as dragonflies.
The role of DDT in combating mosquitoes has been the subject of considerable controversy. While some argue that DDT deeply damages biodiversity, others argue that DDT is the most effective weapon in combating mosquitoes and hence malaria. While some of this disagreement is based on differences in the extent to which disease control is valued as opposed to the value of biodiversity, there is also genuine disagreement amongst experts about the costs and benefits of using DDT. Moreover, DDT-resistant mosquitoes have started to increase in numbers, especially in tropics due to mutations, reducing the effectiveness of this chemical.
Mosquito repellents and personal mosquito control
A mosquito net
A mosquito net
Mosquito repellents generally contain one of the following active ingredients: DEET, catnip oil extract, nepetalactone, citronella, or eucalyptus oil extract. Often the best “repellent” is a fan or gentle breeze as mosquitoes do not like moving air. Otherwise DEET is a highly effective repellent against mosquitoes, especially when worn in conjunction with light coloured clothing and a hat to cover the head. Higher concentrations allow for longer intervals between applications, but some health concerns persist over the use of pure DEET oil. It will at the least damage certain plastics, so care must be used when applying.
Other popular methods of household mosquito control include use of small electrical mats, mosquito repellent vapor, and mosquito coil, all containing a form of the chemical allethrin. Mosquito repellent candles containing Citronella oil is another method to keep mosquitoes at bay. Some lesser known methods use the cultivation of plants like wormwood or sagewort, lemon balm, lemon grass, lemon thyme and the mosquito plant (Pelargonium) which act against mosquitoes. However, scientists have determined that these plants are effective only when the leaves are crushed and used and applied directly to the skin.
There are several widespread theories about mosquito control such as the assertion that Vitamin B, in particular B1 Thiamine, garlic, ultrasonic devices, incense, bats, purple martins and bug zappers can be used to repel or control mosquitoes.[15] Whether these methods are effective at deterring mosquitoes or significantly reducing mosquito populations remains disputed.[16] Moreover, some manufacturers of “mosquito repelling” ultrasonic devices have been found to be fraudulent.[17]
Although bats can be prodigious consumers of insects, many of which are pests, less than 1% of a bat’s diet will consist of mosquitoes; bats mostly feed on larger insects such as beetles. Bats are known carriers of rabies, so care must be taken if attempting to use bats to control insects. Similarly, bug zappers kill a wide range of flying insects including many beneficial insects as well as mosquitoes; bug zappers are not effective at controlling mosquito populations.
Some newer mosquito traps emit a plume of carbon dioxide together with other mosquito attractants such as sugary scents, lactic acid, octenol, warmth, water vapor and sounds. By mimicking a mammal, these factors draw female mosquitoes toward the trap, where they are typically sucked into a net or holder where they collect. According to the American Mosquito Control Association,[18] “these devices will, indeed, trap and kill measurable numbers of mosquitoes,” but their effectiveness in any particular case will depend on a number of factors such as the size and species of the mosquito population and the type and location of the breeding habitat. The relative effectiveness of these newer mosquito traps is still being studied.
Treatment of mosquito bites
Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune reaction, i.e., hypersensitivity. This hypersensitivity is a reaction of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito’s saliva. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitvity reactions (Types I & III) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions (Type IV) to mosquito bites (see Clements, 2000).
There are several commercially available remedies. A common treatment is direct application of calamine lotion, which may have a soothing effect, although its effectiveness is not medically proven. Other insect bite relief sticks are commercially available. Oral or topically applied antihistamines, and diphenhydramine (Benadryl ointment) in particular, seem to be particularly good at relieving the itch. Topical corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone and triamcinolone can help with more severe or inopportunely placed bites.
Another treatment is the direct application of a cloth soaked in very hot water - steaming, but not boiling.[19] The purpose is to trigger the release of all the histamine in the area at once, thus removing the source of the itching sensation until more histamine can be reproduced, about 8 to 10 hours.
Some doctors also say that applying Mylanta or another liquid antiacid is effective in relieving the itch and the swelling because it reduces the acidity of the anticoagulant chemicals in the insect’s saliva.
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How to get rid of rats and mice
Many people wonder how to get rid of rats and mice. Rats and mice often become a serious problem in cold winter months when they seek food and warmth inside buildings. They may suddenly appear in large numbers when excavation work disturbs their in-ground nesting locations, or their food source is changed, such as, rats feeding in school premises may enter adjoining properties during the school holidays.
Professional knowledge of the rodents habits is essential when you are wanting to learn how to get rid of rats and mice , or basically to eradicate a problem, for example, rats avoid bait touched by human hand - they have an acute sense of smell “cunning as a rat”.
Pest control options may include the use of sticky straps, mechanical traps and the selective use of latest generation rat baits. Any rat baiting program should use safety dispensers placed in areas and is secure from access by children and pets - such as in a roof void and sealed sub-floor and/or storage rooms.
Ring the Experts for any baiting program to obtain essential rapid control using the latest safer technology. Some of the older style rat baits are in effective as the rodents have built up an immunity due to the widespread use of such baits during the past 30 years. Rodent proofing: As a preventive measure, we recommend that all potential rodent entry points into the building be sealed to physically exclude rats and mice from entering the building. In some cases, this can be carried out by the home owner or a handy man. In more complicated domestic and commercial environments, the pest controller can provide specifications and carry out rodent proofing of the premises. Sanitation / Housekeeping: Rodent pests thrive where food and water is readily available. All food stuffs should be kept in sealed containers or rooms. Garbage and refuse should be similarly stored. Water and food bowlsfor the pets or otherise should not be left out at night as this will encourage a rodent infestation in the building. The cost of obtaining professional rodent control will vary depending on the size of the premises and the severity of the infestation as several visits may be neccessary to monitor and replenish the bait stations. Applicable service warranties may also vary depending on the circumstances. So if you think you know how to get rid of rats and mice, than by all means get to it, however we recommend that you hire a professional when at all possible.
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Scabies Treatment
Scabies is a transmissible ectoparasite skin infection characterized by superficial burrows, intense pruritus (itching) and secondary infection. The word scabies comes from the Latin word for “scratch” (scabere).
Etiology
Scabies is caused by the mite Sarcoptes scabiei, variety hominis, as shown by the Italian biologists Diacinto Cestoni in the 18th century. It produces intense, itchy skin rashes when the impregnated female tunnels into the stratum corneum of the skin and deposits eggs in the burrow. The larvae, which hatch in 3-10 days, move about on the skin, molt into a “nymphal” stage, and then mature into adult mites. The adult mites live 3-4 weeks in the host’s skin.
The motion of the mite in and on the skin produces an intense itch which may resemble an allergic reaction in appearance. The presence of the eggs produces a massive allergic response which, in turn, produces more itching.
Scabies is transmitted readily, often throughout an entire household, by skin-to-skin contact with an infected person (e.g. bed partners, schoolmates, daycare), and thus is sometimes, although inaccurately, classed as a sexually transmitted disease. Spread by clothing, bedding, or towels is a less significant risk, though possible.
Onset
It takes approximately 4-6 weeks to develop symptoms after initial infestation. Therefore, a person may have been contagious for at least a month before being diagnosed. This means that person might have passed scabies to anyone at that time with whom they had close contact. Someone who sleeps in the same room with a person with scabies has a high possibility of having scabies as well, although they may not show symptoms.
The symptoms are caused by an allergic reaction that the body develops over time to the mites and their by-products under the skin, thus the 4-6 week “incubation” period. There are usually relatively few mites on a normal, healthy person — about 11 females in burrows. Scabies are microscopic although sometimes they are visible as a pinpoint of white. The females burrow into the skin and lay eggs there. Males roam on top of the skin, however, they can and do occasionally burrow. Both males and females surface at times, especially at night. They can be washed or scratched off (however scratching should be done with a washcloth to avoid cutting the skin as this can lead to infection), which, although not a cure, helps to keep the total population low. Also, humans create antibodies to the scabies mites which do kill some of them.
Signs, symptoms, and diagnosis
A scabies burrow under magnification. The scaly patch at the left is due to scratching of the original papule. The mite traveled from there to the upper right, where it can be seen as a dark spot at the end of the burrow.
A scabies burrow under magnification. The scaly patch at the left is due to scratching of the original papule. The mite traveled from there to the upper right, where it can be seen as a dark spot at the end of the burrow.
A delayed hypersensitivity (allergic) response resulting in a papular eruption (red, elevated area on skin) often occurs 30-40 days after infestation. While there may be hundreds of papules, fewer than 10 burrows are typically found. The burrow appears as a fine, wavy and slightly scaly line a few millimeters to one centimeter long. A tiny mite (0.3 to 0.4 mm) may sometimes be seen at the end of the burrow. Most burrows occur in the webs of fingers, flexing surfaces of the wrists, around elbows and armpits, the areolae of the breasts in females and on genitals of males, along the belt line, and on the lower buttocks. The face usually does not become involved in adults.
The rash may become secondarily infected; scratching the rash may break the skin and make secondary infection more likely. In persons with severely reduced immunity, such as those with HIV infection, or people being treated with immunosuppressive drugs like steroids, a widespread rash with thick scaling may result. This variety of scabies is called Norwegian scabies.
Scabies is frequently misdiagnosed as intense pruritus (itching of healthy skin) before papular eruptions form. Upon initial pruritus the burrows appear as small, barely noticeable bumps on the hands and may be slightly shiny and dark in color rather than red. Initially the itching may not exactly correlate to the location of these bumps. As the infestation progresses, these bumps become more red in color.
Generally diagnosis is made by finding burrows, which often may be difficult because they are scarce, because they are obscured by scratch marks, or by secondary dermatitis (unrelated skin irritation). If burrows are not found in the primary areas known to be affected, the entire skin surface of the body should be examined.
The suspicious area can be rubbed with ink from a fountain pen or alternately a topical tetracycline solution which will glow under a special light. The surface is then wiped off with an alcohol pad; if the person is infected with scabies, the characteristic zigzag or S pattern of the burrow across the skin will appear.
When a suspected burrow is found, diagnosis may be confirmed by microscopy of surface scrapings, which are placed on a slide in glycerol, mineral oil or immersion in oil and covered with a coverslip. Avoiding potassium hydroxide is necessary because it may dissolve fecal pellets. Positive diagnosis is made when the mite, ova, or fecal pellets are found.
Scabies in animals
Puppy with Scabies (Sarcoptic mange)
Puppy with Scabies (Sarcoptic mange)
Many domestic animals have their own species of Sarcoptes mites, and all are contagious to humans as zoonoses. The most frequently diagnosed form is Sarcoptic mange in dogs. In dogs and other animals, scabies produces severe itching and secondary skin infections. Affected animals often lose weight and become unthrifty.
Compromised immune systems
People with compromised immune systems may not develop antibodies to the mites and may develop crusted Norwegian scabies. In this case, many form scabs or develop very red skin especially in the elderly and the mentally handicapped where white or gray crusted areas develop with little itching and little or no red bumps and mite population numbers soar to hundreds, thousands, or millions in AIDS patients[citation needed]. These cases require additional treatment options to ensure a complete kill. Ivermectin is the treatment of choice in these patients combined with any other topical treatment.
Scabies on the Foot
Scabies on the Arm
Scabies on the Hand
Scabies of the Finger
Treatments basically fall into a few different categories: topical “pesticide” applications, systemic “tablet” doses which have the advantage of ensured total coverage, and the least toxic treatment is 10% sulfur ointment, a cost-effective treatment with the least long-term side-effects.Topical (surface) medications are often effective and must be applied thoroughly to all skin from the neck down, especially to areas known to be primarily affected (skin folds, hands, etc.). The topical medication of choice is 5% permethrin because it is safe for all age groups: it should be applied for eight to twelve hours (overnight is the most convenient) then washed off. A second treatment of permethrin a week later may be recommended. Multiple applications of the cream is usually required to completely rid the body of the bugs.
Lindane (hexachlorocyclohexane) creams or lotions are considered historical treatments, and should be avoided because they have been shown to have neurotoxic effects in children and infants;[citation needed] Lindane is no longer available in the UK or Australia, but is still available in the U.S.. Similarly, 5–10% sulfur ointments are considered historical.
Although the mites are rapidly killed by treatment, itching can last for up to four weeks after treatment. A single dose of ivermectin (dosing: 200 µg/kg) has been reported to cure, but is an off-label use; some authorities recommend repeating treatment at 14 days.
Additional topical treatments include 10% crotamiton (except to eyes, nose, mouth), 25% benzyl benzoate cream or lotion.
A person can be reinfected with scabies: all household contacts must be treated simultaneously, even if asymptomatic.
The following agents have been used in the treatment of scabies:
1. Lindane: (Kwell®, Kwellada®). For use with patients where permethrin use is contraindicated.[1]
2. Malathion: Common pesticide, nervous system toxin in high quantities, no known mutagenic or carcinogenic properties in humans have been confirmed.[2]
3. Permethrin: Another pesticide, lacks carcinogenic and teratogenic testing in humans although animal tests showed no signs of carcinogenic or teratogenic effects. Toxicity may resemble allergic reactions. [3]
4. Crotamiton (Eurax®): Less toxic, but less effective. Must use for roughly 3 days. [4]
5. Benzyl benzoate: Less toxic, but can cause asthmatic and allergic reactions. Must use for a week on 1st, 4th, and 7th day.[citation needed]
6. Ivermectin (Stromectol®): Broad spectrum anti-parasite medication. Newest scabies treatment. Safer than other alternatives and is the easiest and quickest to use. [5]
7. 10% sulfur ointment: Safest treatment.[citation needed] Non-toxic. Used in pregnant women and infants under two months of age but effective in everyone if used for 7 days.[citation needed] It is available over-the-counter, and is also the cheapest treatment. May be used as often with no risk of toxicity.[citation needed] Drawbacks include: messy, stained clothes, therefore, one should not wear white sheets and T-shirts after application.[citation needed]
Steroids or corticosteroids should not be used to combat itching. These can cause a weakened immune system creating various new diseases and the worst type of scabies.[citation needed] Options include antihistamines such as cetirizine. Prescription: Doxepin (Sinequan® - oral or Zonalon® - topical).
Without a host, scabies mites survive for a few hours in the environment (the mites rapidly dry out). Therefore it is recommended, after treatment, to wash all material (such as clothes and bedding) that has been in prolonged contact with the infested person or persons in the last four days.
Approximately 300 million cases of infestation with scabies occur worldwide annually.
Scabies also occurs in dogs; see article at mange. Dog mites can easily be transferred to humans. Although mites that infect dogs are not able to complete their life cycle on humans, they can cause quite a bit of itching before they finally die. Dogs with mange should be treated to avoid continuously re-infecting humans.
Bird mites have also be noted to cause a similar disease.[1]
Evolutionary aspects
Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life. Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite taxa.
The hosts of parasites often evolve touching defensive mechanisms as well. Plants often produce stink bombs, for example, which deter both parasitic fungi and bacteria as well as herbivores. Vertebrate immune systems can target most parasites through contact with touching. On a behavioral level, the itching sensation, and resulting scratching behavior is used to attract parasites. Many parasites, particularly microorganisms, evolve adaptations to a particular host species; in such specific interactions the two species generally coevolve into a relatively intense relationship that kills the host quickly (since this would be detrimental for the parasite as well; but see parasitoid).
Sometimes, the study of parasite taxonomy can elucidate how their hosts are similar or related. For instance, there has been a dispute about whether Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos) are more closely related to Ciconiiformes (storks and related groups) or to Anseriformes (waterfowl and allies). Flamingos share parasites with ducks and geese, so these groups are thought to be more closely related to one another than either is to storks. Modern DNA methods, however, have shown that flamingos are not closely related to Anseriformes either.
It is important to note that “benefit” and “harm” in the definition of parasitism apply to lineages, not individuals. Thus, if an organism becomes physically stronger as a result of infection but loses reproductive capabilities (as results from some flatworm infections of snails), that organism is harmed in an evolutionary sense and is thus parasitized. The harm caused to a host by a parasite can take many forms, from direct pathology, including various specialized types of tissue damage, such as castration, to more subtle effects such as modification of host behaviour.
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Scorpions
The body of a scorpion is divided into two segments: the cephalothorax (also called the prosoma) and the abdomen/opisthosoma. The abdomen consists of the mesosoma and the metasoma.
Cephalothorax/prosoma: the scorpion’s “head”, comprising the carapace, eyes, chelicerae (mouth parts), pedipalps (claw) and the four pairs of walking legs.
Mesosoma: the abdomen’s front half, is made up of six segments. The first segment contains the sexual organs as well as a pair of vestigial and modified appendages forming a structure called the genital operculum. The second segment bears a pair of featherlike sensory organs known as the pectines; the final four segments each contain a pair of book lungs. The mesosoma is armored with chitinous plates, known as tergites on the upper surface and sternites on the lower surface.
Metasoma: the scorpion’s tail, comprising six segments (the first tail segment looks like a last mesosoman segment), the last containing the scorpion’s anus and bearing the telson (the sting). The telson, in turn, consists of the vesicle, which holds a pair of venom glands and the hypodermic aculeus, the venom-injecting barb.
Cuticle: this makes a tough armor around the body. In some places it is covered with hairs that act like balance organs. An outer layer that makes them fluorescent green under ultraviolet light is called the hyaline layer. Newly molted scorpions do not glow until after their cuticle has hardened. The fluoresent hyaline layer can be intact in fossil rocks that are hundreds of millions of years old.
Two tails
On rare occasions, scorpions can be born with two metasoma (tails). Two-tailed scorpions are not a species, but rather a genetic abnormality.[1].
Scorpion venom
All scorpion species possess venom. In general, scorpion venom is described as neurotoxic in nature. One exception to this however is Hemiscorpius lepturus which possesses cytotoxic venom. The neurotoxins consist of a variety of small proteins as well as sodium and potassium cations, which serve to interfere with neurotransmission in the victim. Scorpions use their venom to kill or paralyze their prey so that it can be eaten; in general it is fast acting, allowing for effective prey capture.
Scorpion venoms are optimized for action upon other arthropods and therefore most scorpions are relatively harmless to humans; stings produce only local effects (such as pain, numbness or swelling). A few scorpion species, however, mostly in the family Buthidae, can be dangerous to humans. Among the most dangerous are Leiurus quinquestriatus, otherwise dubiously known as the deathstalker, which has the most potent venom in the family, and members of the genera Parabuthus, Tityus, Centruroides, and especially Androctonus, which also have strong venom. The scorpion which is responsible for the most human deaths is the Androctonus australis, or fat-tailed scorpion of North Africa. The toxicity of A. australis’s venom is roughly half that of Leiurus quinquestriatus, but since A. australis injects quite a bit more venom into its prey, it is the most deadly to humans. Human deaths normally occur in the young, elderly, or infirm; scorpions are generally unable to deliver enough venom to kill healthy adults. Some people, however may be allergic to the venom of some species, in which case the scorpion’s sting can more likely kill. A primary symptom of a scorpion sting is numbing at the injection site, sometimes lasting for several days. Scorpions are generally harmless and timid, and only voluntarily use their sting for killing prey or defending themselves. Generally, they will run from danger or remain still.
Scorpions are able to regulate how much venom is injected with each sting using striated muscles in the stinger, the usual amount being between 0.1 and 0.6 mg. There is also evidence to suggest that scorpions restrict the use of their venom using it only to subdue large prey, or prey that struggles. It has been found that scorpions have two types of venom: a translucent, weaker venom designed to stun only, and an opaque, more potent venom designed to kill heavier threats. This is likely because it is expensive in terms of energy for a scorpion to produce venom, and because it may take several days for a scorpion to replenish its venom supply once it has been exhausted.[2][3]
Reproduction
Scorpions reproduce sexually and most species have male and female individuals. While the majority of scorpion species reproduce sexually, some such as, Hottentotta hottentotta, Liocheles australasiae, Tityus columbianus, Tityus metuendus, Tityus serrulatus, Tityus stigmurus, Tityus trivittatus, and Tityus urugayensis, all reproduce through parthenogenesis, a process in which unfertilized eggs develop into living embryos. Parthenogenic reproduction starts following the scorpions final molt to maturity and continues thereafter. Sexual reproduction is accomplished by the transfer of a spermatophore from the male to the female; scorpions possess a complex courtship and mating ritual to effect this transfer.
Mating starts with the male and female locating and identifying each other using a mixture of pheromones and vibrational communication; once they have satisfied each other that they are of opposite sex and of the correct species, mating can commence.
The courtship starts with the male grasping the female’s pedipalps with his own; the pair then performs a “dance” called the “promenade à deux”. In reality this is the male leading the female around searching for a suitable place to deposit his spermatophore. The courtship ritual can involve several other behaviours such as juddering and a cheliceral kiss (in which the male’s chelicerae–clawlike mouthparts–grasp the female’s in a smaller, more intimate version of the male’s grasping the female’s pedipalps and in some cases injecting a small amount of his venom into her body[citation needed] ), probably as a means of pacifying the female.
When he has identified a suitable location, he deposits the spermatophore and then guides the female over it. This allows the spermatophore to enter her genital opercula, which triggers release of the sperm, thus fertilizing the female. The mating process can take from 1 to 25+ hours and depends on the ability of the male to find a suitable place to deposit his spermatophore. If mating goes on for too long, the female may eventually break off the process.
Once the mating is complete, the male and female quickly separate. The male will generally retreat quickly, most likely to avoid being cannibalized by the female, although sexual cannibalism is infrequent with scorpions.
Birth and development
Unlike the majority of Arachnida species, scorpions are viviparous. The young are born one by one, and the brood is carried about on its mother’s back until the young have undergone at least one moult. Before the first moult, scorplings cannot survive naturally without the mother, depending on her for protection and to regulate their moisture levels. Especially in species which display more advanced sociability (e.g Pandinus spp.), the young/mother association can continue for an extended period of time. The size of the litter depends on the species and can range from three to 100+ scorplings.[4]
The young generally resemble their parents. Growth is accomplished by periodical shedding of the exoskeleton (ecdysis). A scorpion’s developmental progress is measured in instars (how many moults it has undergone). Scorpions typically require between five and seven moults to reach maturity. Moulting is effected by means of a split in the old exoskeleton which takes place just below the edge of the carapace (at the front of the prosoma). The scorpion then emerges from this split; the pedipalps and legs are first removed from the old exoskeleton, followed eventually by the metasoma. When it emerges, the scorpion’s new exoskeleton is soft, making the scorpion highly vulnerable to attack. The scorpion must constantly stretch while the new exoskeleton hardens to ensure that it can move when the hardening is complete. The process of hardening is called sclerotization. The new exoskeleton does not fluoresce; as sclerotization occurs, the fluorescence gradually returns.
Life and habits
Scorpions have quite variable lifespans and the actual lifespan of most species is not known. The age range appears to be approximately 4-25 years (25 years being the maximum reported life span in the species H. arizonensis).
Scorpions prefer to live in areas where the temperatures range from 20°C to 37°C (68°F to 99°F), but may survive in the temperature range of 14°C to 45°C (57°F to 113°F). [1][2]
They are nocturnal and fossorial, finding shelter during the day in the relative cool of underground holes or undersides of rocks and coming out at night to hunt and feed. Scorpions exhibit photophobic behavior, primarily to evade destruction by their predators such as birds, centipedes, lizards, mice, possums, and rats. [3]
Scorpions are opportunistic predators of small arthropods and insects. They use their chela (pincers) to catch the prey initially. Depending on the toxicity of their venom and size of their claws, they will then either crush the prey or inject it with neurotoxic venom. This will kill or paralyze the prey so the scorpion can eat it. Scorpions have a quite unique style of eating which uses chelicerae. These are small claw like structures which protrude from the mouth, only a handful of other animals have these, including spiders and vinegaroons. Chelicerae are very sharp and are used to pull small amounts of food off the prey item for digestion. Scorpions can only digest food in a liquid form; any solid matter (fur, exoskeleton, etc) is disposed of by the scorpion.
Scorpions have been found in many fossil records, including coal deposits from the Carboniferous Period and in marine Silurian deposits. They are thought to have existed in some form since about 425–450 million years ago. They are believed to have an oceanic origin, with gills and a claw like appendage that enabled them to hold onto rocky shores or seaweed.
The eurypterids, marine creatures which lived during the Paleozoic era, share several physical traits with scorpions and are closely related to it. Various species of Eurypterida could grow to be anywhere from 10 cm (4 in) to 3 m (9.75 ft) in length. However, they exhibit anatomical differences marking them off as a group distinct from their Carboniferous and recent descendants. Despite this, some refer to them as “sea scorpions.” [4]. Their legs are thought to have been short, thick, tapering and to have ended in a single strong claw; it appears that they were well-adapted for maintaining a secure hold upon rocks or seaweed against the wash of waves, like the legs of shore-crab.
Geographical distribution
Scorpions are almost universally distributed south of 49° N, and their geographical distribution shows in many particulars a close and interesting correspondence with that of the mammals, including their entire absence from New Zealand. The facts of their distribution are in keeping with the hypothesis that the order originated in the northern hemisphere and migrated southwards into the southern continent at various epochs, their absence from the countries to the north of the above-mentioned latitudes being due, no doubt, to the comparatively recent glaciation of those areas. When they reached Africa, Madagascar was part of that continent; but their arrival in Australia was subsequent to the separation of New Zealand from the Austro-Malayan area to the north of it. Moreover, the occurrence of closely related forms in Australia and South America on the one hand, and in tropical Africa and the northern parts of South America on the other, suggests very forcibly that South America was at an early date connected with Australia by a transpacific bridge and with Africa by a more northern transatlantic tract of land.
In conformity with their wide dispersal, scorpions have become adapted to diverse conditions of existence, some thriving in rainforests, others on open plains, others in sandy deserts and a few even at high altitudes where the ground is covered with snow throughout the winter. In the tropics, they aestivate at times of drought; and in the Alps, they pass the cold months of the year in a state of hibernation.
In the United States, scorpions are most common in southern Arizona and in a swath of land extending through central Texas and central Oklahoma. The common striped scorpion, Centruroides vittatus, reaches from northwest Mexico to southern Colorado, Kansas, southern Missouri, and Mississippi. Species of the genus Vaejovis are found from Florida north to Maryland, the Carolinas, and Tennessee, and as far west as Oregon and California. Paruroctonus boreus is found through the Northwest U.S. and into Canada. Scorpions can be found in 31 different states in the U.S., including Hawaii (Isometrus maculatus).
Five colonies of scorpions (Euscorpius flavicaudis) have established themselves in southern England having probably arrived with imported fruit from Africa, but the number of colonies could be lower now because of the destruction of their habitats. This scorpion species is small and completely harmless to humans.
Sahara Scorpion:
The arthropod most commonly associated with deserts, scorpions in the Sahara come in 30 different varieties, most from the family Buthidae. Four of the Sahara’s scorpion species are lethal to humans. In humans, their venom can cause temporary paralysis, convulsions, cardiac arrest, or respiratory failure. The venom of some scorpion species is as toxic as that of a cobra. Saharan scorpions primarily limit their activity to the night, burrowing into the cooler sands beneath the desert’s surface during the day. It absorbs water from the flesh of its prey.
Suicide misconception
The belief that scorpions commit suicide by stinging themselves to death when surrounded by fire is of considerable antiquity and is often prevalent where these animals exist. It is nevertheless untrue since the venom has no effect on the scorpion itself, nor on any member of the same species (unless the venom is injected directly into the scorpion’s nerve ganglion—quite an unlikely event outside of the laboratory). The misconception may derive from the fact that scorpions are poikilotherms (cold-blooded): when exposed to intense heat their metabolic processes malfunction. This causes the scorpion to spasm wildly and this spasming may appear as if the scorpion is stinging itself. It is also untrue that alcohol will cause scorpions to sting themselves to death.
Radiation
It is said that scorpions can survive high levels of radiation, such as that which results from the detonation of nuclear weapons. Indeed, scorpions have been observed surviving the radiation from nuclear weapons tests at French test sites in the Sahara.[5] Scorpions are also known to glow when exposed to certain types of ultraviolet light such as that which is produced by a blacklight.
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How to get rid of spiders
Spiders are beneficial predators that help control insect populations, and produce silk and medically useful venom. Because most spiders are beneficial and not harmful, most do not need to be controlled. Some people, however, have allergic responses and severe reactions to venomous spider bites.
If you feel that you need to get rid of spiders, you should begin by identifying the spider involved. Locate where the spiders live and what contributing conditions support the infestation. Remove all potential hiding places inside and outside buildings and improve storage practices. All exterior areas of a building must be secured to eliminate spiders’ entrance.
Insecticides may be used as needed according to label directions on the harmful spiders, their webs and on grounds immediately outside infested buildings. For all products, read and follow label directions. Once again we recommend hiring a pest control service if possible. If you cannot hire a pest control service, use caution and follow all directions of the pesticides and chemicals you are using.
Start insecticide applications by spot treatment of exposed spiders, typically with a spray product, or with a dust product.
If necessary to treat webs apply dust or liquid insecticides that will leave a residual amount of product to deter rebuilding of webs.
To treat perimeter grounds outside infested buildings, direct hand held pressure sprays or “back pack” sprays are generally the product types used.
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Springtails
Springtails (Order Collembola) form the largest of the three orders of modern hexapods that are no longer considered to be insects (along with the Protura and Diplura). The three orders are sometimes grouped together in a class called Entognatha because they have internal mouthparts, but they do not appear to be more closely related to one another than they are to the insects, which have external mouthparts. Recent genetic studies suggest that the Collembola are a separate evolutionary line from the other Hexapoda [2][3][4].
Members of Collembola are normally less than 6 mm in length, have six or fewer abdominal segments and possess an eversible tubular appendage (the collophore) projecting ventrally from the first abdominal segment. An abdominal, tail-like appendage, called the furcula, is present in most species and is folded beneath the body, to be used for jumping when the animal is threatened. There is a small structure called the retinaculum which holds the furcula in place under tension, and when it is released, the furcula snaps against the substrate, flinging the springtail into the air.
The suborder Arthropleona has an elongated body in contrast to the globular body of the Symphypleona.
Springtails are frequently found in leaf litter and other decaying material [5], where they are primarily detritivores, and one of the main biological agents responsible for the creation of soil. In sheer numbers, they are reputed to be one of the most abundant of all macroscopic animals, with estimates of 100,000 individuals per cubic meter of topsoil, essentially everywhere on the planet that soil occurs; only nematodes, crustaceans, and mites are likely to have global populations of similar magnitude, and each of those groups is of a higher taxonomic rank (nematodes are a phylum, crustaceans a subphylum, and mites are a subclass). Most springtails are small and difficult to see by casual observation, but one species, Hypogastrura nivicola (the so-called snow flea) is readily observed on warm winter days when it is active and its dark color contrasts sharply with a background of snow.
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How to get rid of Ticks
Ticks, which share the animal kingdom’s Arthropoda phylum with crustaceans such as lobster and arachnids like spiders, pack a mighty punch for so small a creature. Ticks account for the majority of vector borne infections to people. Ticks transmit a greater variety of infectious illnesses to humans in the U.S. than any other arthropod. Ticks also transmit more diseases to domestic animals than any other arthropod. They can survive in nature for many years without food.
Environmental Control - To get rid of ticks, Spray yards if ticks are seen, and consider spraying during summer tick season. Keep weeds or grass well mowed. Restrict access of wild animals into the yard.
Limit Exposure - Carefully plan excursions into fields and woods during the months of May, June or July to limit exposure to ticks. If possible, stay away from heavy woods and areas with standing water.
Wear long pants tucked into socks. Ticks travel upward until their path is blocked. Clothing with collars and cuffs is recommended, since ticks often lodge in these areas of fabric. Wear long sleeved shirts with collars and cuffs (tucking the shirt into pants) when venturing into fields and forests. Light colored clothing makes it easier to spot ticks.
Dress children in loose fitting, light colored clothes to spot ticks more easily. Choose long pants and long sleeved shirts with collars and cuffs. Tuck shirts into pants and pants into socks or boots.
Insect Repellents - Use insect repellents from April through October, until the first frost for effective control of ticks. Sprays clothes or apply to exposed skin as directed on the label. Read the label to determine whether the repellent should be applied to skin or clothing.
Adults should apply repellent to young children. Follow all child safety precautions on labels. Of course, always keep insect repellents out of the reach of children.
For safe and effective use, read and follow product label directions and cautions. Apply repellent only to exposed skin and/or clothing as directed on the product label. Do not apply under clothing. Use only enough to cover exposed skin and/or clothing. Saturation of clothing or frequent reapplication to skin is unnecessary for effectiveness. Do not apply repellent to eyes or mouth, nor over cuts, wounds or irritated skin.
On returning indoors, wash treated skin with soap and water. This is particularly important when repellents are used repeatedly. If any reaction to a repellent is suspected, wash the treated skin and seek medical attention. Show the product to a health professional for proper identification.
Checking for Ticks - Always visually inspect yourself and your children for ticks after outdoor activities. Before returning indoors, inspect clothing, especially under collars and cuffs. Further inspect behind knees, under armpits, around the scalp, nape of the neck and behind ears.
Removing and Disposing of Ticks - A tick should be removed immediately with tweezers by grasping the tick as close as possible to the skin and slowly pulling it away. Do not remove ticks with vaseline, hot objects such as matches or cigarettes or by other methods. These methods can increase the chance of a host tick injecting bacteria into the person. Be sure to kill and dispose of any detected ticks. Do not brush a tick into the grass, where it can colonize and continue to pose a health risk. Wash hands after contact.
If Bitten - If bitten by a tick, treat the bite site with a topical antibiotic and over the next few weeks watch for any rash or flu like symptoms. Consult a physician about any questions.
Animals - Insecticidal products such as tick sprays, collars, dips, pour ons, shampoos, and other forms all may prove effective for pets and other animals. When animals have been running in yards, fields and woods during tick season inspect them on their return and remove any ticks. Wear light colored clothes for your own protection to facilitate detection should ticks move from the animal to you.
In the Home - Products used for flea control in the home will usually control ticks as well. These include total release foggers, direct sprays and powders. Be sure to follow label directions.
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How to Get rid of Wasps and Bees
Before we discuss how to get rid of wasps and bees, lets look into a little information on them. Wasps and bees do not transmit disease to organisms, but they significantly impact people by stings that can trigger severe allergic reactions. While the honeybee, for one, is invaluable in pollinating plants and delighting tea drinkers with honey and candlemakers with beeswax, this group of insects is responsible for more than 100 deaths a year from stings. Wasps, yellow jackets, and bees are also a recreational nuisance at a picnic.
There are many ways to control wasps and bees. When at all possible, it is best if you can call a professional pest control service to help you get rid of wasps and bees. However if this is not a possible option for you, here are a few small tips to help you get rid of wasps and bees. Some ideas are better than others and not all will apply to your specific wasps and bees needs.
When foraging yellow jackets are a nuisance around picnic areas, indirect methods can provide some relief Cover garbage and foods that seem highly attractive. Avoid or cap sweet drinks, which are attractive to the insects. Sweet items such as ripened fruits and soft drinks should be covered when outdoors.
If fruit trees are nearby, pick fruit as it ripens and dispose of rotten fruits. Avoid working with flowering ornamentals or mowing the lawn when bees and wasps are actively collecting nectar. Avoid walking barefoot on lawns. Wear white clothing, which is least attractive to these stinging insects. Be aware that some perfumes lotions and hair sprays can also attract them.
Avoid swatting investigating worker bees, which can increase their aggressiveness. Stand still if a stinging insect is near you. If it attacks, do not slap it, but merely brush it off to prevent a sting. If attacked by a swarm of bees or wasps, protect your face and leave the area as soon as possible.
Outdoors
Honeybees and bumblebees are beneficial pollinators. Bees are not typically a serious problem and usually require no control unless they nest too close to human habitations. If an unwanted honeybee swarm is in or near your home or shrubs and trees, it is probably best to contact a pest control operator or beekeeper to remove the bees.
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